Buddhism

Gautama, a contemporary of Mahavira, was the founder of Buddhism.

Gautama Buddha:

• He was born in 566 BC.
• He was born at Lumbini village near Kapilavastu in Nepal.
• Father - Suddhodhana, the King of Kapilavastu.
• Mother - Mayadevi, also called Mahamaya, died 7 days after Gautama's birth.
• Step mother - Prajapati Gautami, sister of Mayadevi.
• Wife - Yasodhara.
• Son - Rahula.
• Family Name - Gautama.
• Original Name - Siddhartha
• At the age of 29, he left home and started his career as a wondering seeker of truth. This was the Great Renunciation.
• For 6 years, he spent his life as an ascetic and took instructions from two brahmin teachers.
• He visited places like Rajagriha and Hruvela near Gaya.
• While he was sitting under a pipal tree at Bodh-Gaya, he attained Bodhi-illumination (or) enlightment.
• He realised that great peace is within one's heart and one must seek it there. This is known as Great Enlightment. Since then Gautama became Buddha, 'the enlighted one'.
• He gave his first religious discourse at Deer Park in Sarnath near Banaras and 5 people joined him to become his first disciples. This event is known as 'Dharma Chakra Pravarthana'.
• He preached for 45 years in Bihar and adjoining areas.
• He died in 486 BC at the age of 80 years at Kusinagara in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.

Teachings of Buddha:

He taught 4 noble truths (Arya satyani),

1. There is suffering in life.
2. This suffering has a cause.
3. This suffering can be removed by destroying its cause.
4. The cause of suffering can be destroyed by following the eight fold path (Astangamarga).

The Astangamarga consists of,

1. Right Views
2. Right Aspirations
3. Right Speech
4. Right Conduct
5. Right livlihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right mindedness
8. Right Contemplation

By following the astangamarga, one attains nirvana (or) liberation. Nirvana literally means blowing out the desire for existence. It is freedom from rebirth.

Buddha also laid emphasis on ahimsa. He stressed the point of the spirit of love than mere non-injury or non-violence.

Buddhist Scriptures - Tripitakas:

Buddha's teachings were not written during his lifetime. After his death, the disciples met at Rajagriha and compiled the Master's sayings and cermons. They were arranged in 2 parts, Sutta and Vinaya. The 3rd part Abhidhamma was added during the 3rd Buddhist council held at Pataliputra during the time of Ashoka. Sutta contains religious discourses and sayings of Buddha. Vinaya contains rules of monastic discipline and Abhidhamma contains metaphysical discussion on various subjects and gives the philosophy of Buddhism.

All these three parts are collectively called tripitakas. Pitika is a pali word, it is the corrupted form of the Sanskrit word, Peetika, meaning a basket. Tripitakas are written in Pali language.

The 4 Buddhist Councils:

• First Council - Rajagriha - Compilationof 2 parts of tripitaka.
• Second Council - Vaisali - 100 years after the death of Gautama Buddha.
• Third Council - Pataliputra - during the reign of Ashoka, Abhidamma was added.
• Fourth Council - Kashmir - during the reign of Kanishka.

The third council was presided by Mogaliputta Tissa.

The fourth council was held under the leadership of Vasumitra and Asvaghosha.

Schisms in Buddhist Church:

Buddhist sangha was divided into 2 schools, namely Mahayana and Hinayana. Hinayana, which means 'lesser vehicle' was the creed originally preached by Gautama Buddha. Mahayanic Buddhism is more akin to puranic Hinduism. A great exponent of Mahayana sect was Nagarjuna.

Spread of Buddhism:

Unlike Jainism, Buddhism had spread to other parts of the world. In the beginning, it was confined to Bihar and along the borders of Nepal. During Ashoka's time, Buddhism spreaded all over India and to foreign countries also. With the revival of Hinduism under the Guptas, Buddhism had practically disappeared from the land of its birth. At present around 1/3rd of World's population follow Buddhism. It is popular in China, Japan, Kampuchea, Vietnam, Srilanka and Thailand.

Jainism

In the 6th Century BC, in many countries, there was great religious ferment.

• Persia - Zoroaster
• China - Confucius
• India - Jainism & Buddhism

The Vedic religion has become ritualistic. Senseless slaughter of animals in the name of religion created a new feeling of pity for animals and the desire not to hurt life. The origin of Jainism is not clear. Traditionally it is associated with 24 saints known as Tirthankaras.

1. Rishabhadeva:

• He was the first thirthankara.
• He was mentioned in Rigveda, Vishnupurana and Bhagavatapurana.
• The presence of his name in the above scriptures indicates that Jainism is as old as the Vedic religion.

2. Parsvanatha:

• He is regarded as the real founder of Jainism.
• He was the son of the king of Vaisali in Bihar.
• Theparents of Vardhamana Mahavira were followers of Parsvanatha.
• He enjoined on his followers 4 vows,
• (1) Ahimsa (non-violence)
• (2) Satya (truth)
• (3) Asteya (non-stealing)
• (4) Aparigraha (non-aquisition)

3. Vardhamana Mahavira:

• He was the 24th and the last thirthankara.
• He was born in 599 BC
• His father - Sidhartha, who was a kshatriya chief of a clan called Jnatrika.
• His mother - Trisala, who was related to the royal family of Vaisali.
• His wife -Yashoda
• His children - one daughter.
• Very little is known about the early life of Mahavira.
• According to Jain tradition, Vardhamana married a princess, Yashoda.
• After the death of his parents, at the age of 30, he renounced the world and wondered all over eastern India.
• At the age of 43, he attained Kevalajnana (or) highest spiritual knowledge.
• To the original 4 vows, he added the 5th vow, Brahmacharya.
• He is called -
• (1) Mahavira - the great hero
• (2) Jina - the conqueror
• (3) Niggantha - free from bondage
• He died at Pava in South Bihar in 527 BC.

Teachings of Mahavira:

• He didnot believe in God.
• He rejected the Vedas.
• He rejected the authority of Brahmins.
• Man is the architect of his own destiny and need not crave for the mercy of God or any such person.
• To attain spiritual enlightment one should discard all external things including clothes.
• Individual's souls will be released from rebirth by following the three fold path -
• (1) right belief
• (2) right knowledge
• (3) right conduct
• He laid great emphasis on ahimsa.
• Jains regard fasting unto death as an act of great merit.

The Jain Church:

Mahavira founded the Jain Church and nominated 11 of his close disciples as Gandharas (or) heads of schools. Only one of these disciples, Arya Sudharma, survived Mahavira and became the pontiff of the Jain Church.

Towards the close of 4th Century BC, great schism took place in Jain Church. One section came to be called Swetambaras (those clad in white) and the other section is called Digambara (naked). According to Swetambaras, the original teachings of Mahavira are to be found in 14 ancient texts called 'Purvas'.

Spread of Jainism:

• Jainism had never spread beyond India.
• Chandra Gupta Maurya was a great patron of Jainism.
• Kharavela, the king of Kalinga, also professed Jainism.
• Samprati, Ashoka's grandson converted to Jainism and sent missionaries to Andhradesa and other parts of Southern India.
• South Indian dynasties like Kadambas, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas patronised Jainism.

The revival of Hinduism from the Gupta period led to the gradual decline of Jainism.

Vedic Civilization

Theories regarding original home of Aryans:

1. William Jones & Max Muller -

• Aryans originally lived in Europe and migrated to other countries.
• This theory is based on the similarities between Sanskrit and European classic languages like Greek and Latin.

2. Bal Gangadhar Tilak - Arctic Region.

3. Majority - Central Asia especially the regio between Oxus and Jaxarles.

The Aryans who migrated to India are called Indo-Aryans. The culture developed by them is called Vedic Culture.

Popular meaning of Veda is 'Knowledge'. Veda is derived from Sanskrit root 'Vid' which means 'to know'. The restricted meaning is applied to 4 sacred books ,

1. Rigveda - oldest of all.
2. Samaveda
3. Yajurveda
4. Atharvaveda.

The Vedas are regarded as 'Sruti' (or) divine revelations heard by 'rishis' (or) seers and therefore infallible. Each Veda has 4 parts,

1. Samhita - it is in the form of hymns or mantras sung in the praise of various Gods.
2. Brahmana - explains the meaning and use of hymns.
3. Aranyaka - it is derived from 'Aranya' (or) forest. They deal with philosophical doctrines to be studied in sylvan retreats by those who have entered the 'vanaprastha ashrama'.
4. Upanishad - means to sit down near someone. It is applied to doctrines imparted by father to son (or) teacher to pupil. Upanishads try to answer important philosophical questions like the existence of God, relation between man and universe. Upanishads are called 'Vedanta', meaning the end of Vedas. The total number of Upanishads is 108. Some of the important Upanishads are isa, kena, taittariya, chandogya and aitareya.

Sruti: All the vedas are collectively known as sruti (or) revelation. Sruti means the rhythm of the infinite heard by noble souls. They constitute Vedic literature proper.

Smriti: Smriti means memory. They are handed down to the next generations by the sages by word of mouth. The most important among the smritis is 'Vedanga'. Vedanga literally means the limb of the Vedas. Vedangas are 6 in number,

1. Siksha - phonetics
2. Kalpa - Ritual
3. Vyakarana - Grammar
4. Nirukta - Etymology
5. Chhaandas - Metrics
6. Jyothisya - Astronomy

Vedic Polity:

• Rigvedic tribes were ruled by kings.
• Non-monarchial form is also known.
• The power of the king was not absolute.
• The king was assisted by Senani, Gramani, & Purohita.
• The business of the tribe was carried on by a popular assembly known as Samiti.
• There was another body, Sabha, which was something like the upper house of the legislature.

Social Life:

• Primarily pastoral and agricultural people.
• Basic unit of social organisation was Patriarchal family.
• Other Units are grama, visa and jana.
• Grama constituted of a number of families & all the agricultural land attatched to it.
• The headman of grama was called 'gramani'.

1. Position of women:

• Women occupied a position of great honour in the early vedic period.
• Girls were educated.
• Child marriages were forbidden.
• Monogamy was the general rule.
• Widows were allowed to remarry.
• Polyandry was unknown.
• There was no seclusion of women.
• Wife was called 'sahadharmini'.
• Lopamudra, Sikata, Ghosha, Apala, Visvavara were some of the women who composed hymns and were given the status of rishi.
• In the later Vedic age, the position of women deteriorated.

2. Food:

• Staple food was Wheat, milk, vegetables, and fruits. [There has been no evidence of consumption of fruits prior to the Vedic Period, i.e, by the Harappans.]
• Eating of beef was not forbidden in the early vedic period, but it became a taboo by the late Vedic period, due to the depletion of the population of cows.
• Soma and Sura are two popular alcoholic drinks.

3. Dress:

• Cotton, wool and deer skin were used.
• The garments consisted of 3 pieces, Nivi - undergarment, Paridhana - main garment, adhivasa - mantle.
• Both females and males were fond of ornaments, especially of gold.

4. Amusements:

• Chariot racing
• Hunting
• Dance and music
• Gambling
• There were 3 types of musical instruments - percussion, string and wind.

Economic Life:

1. Agriculture:

• they lived in scattered villages.
• they took care to preserve livestock.
• to arrest the depletion of cows, eating beef was prohibited.

2. Textiles: Next to education, textiles provided occupationto bulk of the population.

3. Trade & Industry:

• Barter system was the means of trade.
• Commerce was largely in the hands of people called Pani, who were probably non-Aryans.
• In later Vedic age, the traders grouped themselves into Srenis or guilds.
• The use of niskha (or) metallic currency is known.

By the later Vedic Period, the division of society on the basis of Varna (or) Caste developed. This evil practice which still haunts India has its roots in the Vedic Period. Inspite of modernisatio in several ways, the practice of Caste System is still prevelant in India to this date.

There is no word in Sanskrit or any other Indian languages to denote caste. Instead, the word Varna is used, which means colour. Basing on the word Varna, some are of the opinion that the caste system grew out of the racial factor.

1. Theory of race (or) colour: The fair complexioned Aryans looked down upon the dark-complexioned dravidians. To preserve the purity of Aryan blood, caste system was introduced. This theory doesn't stand to reason as there is no evidence of caste system in the early vedic period.
2. Theory of divsion of labour: Caste system evolved in later vedic period to meet the new challenges and requirements of the time due to the growing number of occupations.
3. Purusha-Sukta Theory: The earliest reference to the division of society has been found in 'Purusha-Sukta' in the tenth book of Rigveda samhita. It describes a mythical legend about the sacrifice of a primeval giant called Purusha, the ideal man (or) spirit of the world. Gods have cut Purusha into 4 parts and different varnas originated from different parts of the body of Purusha.

• from mouth - Brahmins
• from arms - Kshatriyas
• from thighs - Vaishyas
• from feet - Sudras

In its original form Caste system is only a class system. Upward mibility was allowed. Castes were not determined by birth. Chabge of professionl led to change of caste. Vyasa, the author of Mahabharata was the son of a fisherwoman. Sage Vasishta was son of a prostitute. Vidura, friend of Dritarashtra was a dasiputra. Parasurama and Dronacharya who were brahmins by birth became kshatriyas later on. Interdining and inter-marriages were allowed.

In later Vedic Period, the caste system became more rigid, inter-marriages were forbidden. Even during the later vedic period, there is no evidence of the practice of Untouchability.